Method of predicting a predisposition to qt prolongation

ABSTRACT

The present invention describes an association between genetic polymorphisms in the ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene and a predisposition to prolongation of the QT interval, and provides related methods for the prediction of such a predisposition, the administration of QT interval-prolonging compounds to individuals having such a predisposition, and determining whether a compound is capable of inducing QT prolongation.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims the benefit of co-pending U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/908,734, filed 29 Mar. 2007, which is hereby incorporated herein.

SEQUENCE LISTINGS

The sequence listings contained in the electronic file titled “VAND-0042-PCT_sequence_listings.txt,” created 28 Mar. 2008, comprising 4.1 MB, is hereby incorporated herein.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Technical Field

The invention relates generally to a method of predicting an individual's predisposition to QT prolongation, and more particularly, to a method of predicting such predisposition based on a sequence of the individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene.

2. Background

Prolongation of the electrocardiographic QT interval (the time between the start of the Q wave and the end of the T wave) is referred to as long QT syndrome (LQTS). LQTS may comprise a genetic component. In some patients with LQTS, QT prolongation can be a chronic condition. In some persons, LQTS may be induced by the administration of an active pharmaceutical ingredient that prolongs the QT interval.

A number of compounds are believed to be capable of prolonging the QT interval. These include amiodarone, arsenic trioxide, bepridil, chloroquine, chlorpromazine, cisapride, clarithromycin, disopyramide, dofetilide, domperidone, droperidol, erythromycin, halofantrine, haloperidol, ibutilide, iloperidone, levomethadyl, mesoridazine, methadone, pentamidine, pimozide, procainamide, quinidine, sotalol, sparfloxacin, and thioridazine.

Other compounds are suspected of being capable of prolonging the QT interval, although such prolongation has not been definitively established. These include alfuzosin, amantadine, azithromycin, chloral hydrate, clozapine, dolasetron, felbamate, flecamide, foscarnet, fosphenyloin, gatifloxacin, gemifloxacin, granisetron, indapamide, isradipine, levofloxacin, lithium, moexipril, moxifloxacin, nicardipine, octreotide, ofloxacin, ondansetron, quetiapine, ranolazine, risperidone, roxithromycin, tacrolimus, tamoxifen, telithromycin, tizanidine, vardenafil, venlafaxine, voriconazole, and ziprasidone.

Individuals at risk of suffering LQTS are advised not to use still other compounds, due to the possibility that they may prolong the QT interval. These include albuterol, amitriptyline, amoxapine, amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, atomoxetine, chloroquine, ciprofloxacin, citalopram, clomipramine, cocaine, desipramine, dexmethylphenidate, dobutamine, dopamine, doxepin, ephedrine, epinephrine, fenfluramine, fluconazole, fluoxetine, galantamine, imipramine, isoproterenol, itraconazole, ketoconazole, levalbuterol, metaproterenol, methylphenidate, mexiletine, midodrine, norepinephrine, nortriptyline, paroxetine, phentermine, phenylephrine, phenylpropanolamine, protriptyline, pseudoephedrine, ritodrine, salmeterol, sertraline, sibutramine, solifenacin, terbutaline, tolterodine, trimethoprim-sulfa, and trimipramine.

The CERKL gene has been mapped by Tuson et al. to 2q31.2-q32.3, between the ITGA4 gene and the NEUROD1 gene, and determined to contain 13 exons. Tuson et al., Mutations of CERKL, a novel human ceramide kinase gene, causes autosomal recessive retinitis pigmentosa (RP26), Am. J. Hum. Genet. 74: 128-138, 2004. PubMed ID: 14681825. Ceramide kinases convert the sphingolipid metabolite ceramide into ceramide-1-phosphate, both of which mediate cellular apoptosis.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention describes an association between genetic polymorphisms in the ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene and a predisposition to prolongation of the QT interval, and provides related methods for the diagnosis of such predisposition and for the administration of QT interval-prolonging compounds to individuals having such a predisposition.

A first aspect of the invention provides a method of administering to an individual a compound capable of prolonging the individual's QT interval (e.g., a compound the administration has been linked to prolonged QT, such as in clinical studies in humans), the method comprising: determining at least a portion of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene sequence; and in the case that a portion of the individual's CERKL gene sequence is associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation, administering to the individual a quantity of the compound less than would be administered to an individual having a CERKL gene sequence not associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation, or electing instead to treat the individual with a different compound not known to be associated with QT prolongation.

A second aspect of the invention provides a method of determining whether or not an individual is predisposed to prolongation of the QT interval, the method comprising: determining at least a portion of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene sequence. All or a portion, including a SNP described hereinbelow, can be compared to CERKL gene sequences that are associated with QT prolongation.

A third aspect of the invention provides a method of administering a compound capable of prolonging QT interval to an individual suffering from long QT syndrome (LQTS), the method comprising: determining at least a portion of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene sequence; and administering to the individual a quantity of the compound based on the individual's CERKL gene sequence.

A fourth aspect of the invention provides a method of administering to an individual a compound capable of prolonging the individual's QT interval, the method comprising: characterizing an expression product of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene; and in the case that the characterized expression product is associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation, administering to the individual a quantity of the compound less than would be administered to an individual having a CERKL gene expression product not associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation. Expression products of the CERKL gene may include, for example, mRNA and protein including any isoform of the mRNA and protein.

fifth aspect of the invention provides a method of determining whether an individual is predisposed to prolongation of the QT interval, the method comprising: characterizing an expression product of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene. All or a portion of the gene expression product can be compared to CERKL gene expression products that are associated with QT prolongation.

A sixth aspect of the invention provides a method of administering a compound capable of prolonging a QT interval to an individual suffering from long QT syndrome (LQTS), the method comprising: characterizing an expression product of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene; and administering to the individual a quantity of the compound based on the characterized expression product.

A seventh aspect of the invention provides a method of determining whether a compound is capable of prolonging QT interval in an individual, the method comprising: measuring an expression product of the individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene; administering to the individual a quantity of the compound; remeasuring the expression product of the individual's CERKL gene; and determining whether the compound is capable of prolonging the individual's QT interval based on a difference in the measurements of the expression product of the individual's CERKL gene.

An eighth aspect of the invention provides a method of determining whether a compound is capable of prolonging a QT interval in an individual, the method comprising: measuring a QT interval of each of a plurality of test organisms, the plurality including a first test organism having a ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) genotype associated with a predisposition for prolongation of QT interval and a second organism having a CERKL genotype not associated with a predisposition for prolongation of QT interval; administering a quantity of the compound to each of the plurality of test organisms; remeasuring a QT interval of at least the first test organism; and determining that the compound is capable of prolonging a QT interval in an individual in the case that the remeasured QT interval is greater than the measured QT interval. Test organisms may include, for example, humans, animal models, and/or cell lines.

In further aspects of the inventions, the invention comprises method for determining an individual's genotype for the CERKL gene that comprises determining the individual's genotype at least one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) locus selected from the group consisting of: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, and rs6433927, as well as a method for reporting a person's genotype for the CERKL gene that comprises determining and reporting the individual's genotype at least one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) locus selected from the group consisting of: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, and rs6433927.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

As indicated above, the invention provides a method of predicting an individual's, e.g., a human subject's, predisposition to QT prolongation based on the sequence of the individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene.

A number of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) within the CERKL gene have been found to have a significant correlation to a predisposition to drug-induced QT prolongation. Table 1, below, shows such SNPs and the genotypes associated with QT prolongation following the administration of iloperidone.

TABLE 1 CERKL SNP Genotypes and QT Prolongation Following Administration of Iloperidone Lowest Affymetrix QTc Allele Allele Seq. SNP No. rs number[1] Position Flank Orientation change P value[3] A B ID No. SNP_A-2220578 rs17226490 142613  ccttcttccaaaaaaa[C/G] forward Non-AA 0.230510123 A G  1 ttggagatccctgttc SNP_A-191199 rs16867442 142502  tgtgagaagttacata[A/C] reverse AB 0.523235967 A C  2 aatagtgatactgtag SNP_A-1937552 rs718449 141189  ttgaactccacacttg[C/T] forward AB 0.222483417 C T  3 accatcatggcactcc SNP_A-1950600 rs12623737 132230  tttcatctgaacattg[A/C] forward AB 0.077895801 A C  4 agaatgacatctacat SNP_A-4262423 rs10514624 128459  ctgtgagtttgaagta[C/T] reverse AB 0.415376626 C T  5 ggtgggtatgcccaag SNP_A-1966128 rs10490688 124294  caaatacaattcagag[A/C] reverse AB 0.007281497 A C  6 ccttactgtggcatgt SNP_A-2246382 rs16867447 121205  ctggttctactggtaa[A/T] forward AB 0.059152747 A T  7 ctgtttttcaaaataa SNP_A-1966129 rs6706370 118832  actgttaaaccttatg[A/T] forward Non-AA 0.136332739 A T  8 gagcttcagattctatat SNP_A-2140582 rs895901 109658  tgctctgtgttcaacat forward AB 0.004039676 A T  9 [A/T]gtgcaggatgcgagatg SNP_A-1937875 rs1441162 91975 ttgaatcatttgcgcc[A/C] forward AA 0.003384913 A C 10 aggaactggacagacc SNP_A-2122170 rs993650 90904 agtgatttccagtata[C/T] reverse AB 4.83E-07 C T 11 gctgttaagtttaaaa SNP_A-4232718 rs993648 90758 ccccttataggtaacc[A/G] forward AB 2.60E-07 A G 12 attgcactggtttcta SNP_A-2216593 rs16867450 89951 cctctatatctcaaag[A/G] reverse Non-AA 0.004139028 A G 13 aaactcaatttcaact SNP_A-2216297 rs16867452 86371 cctcctctaccatcta[C/T] reverse BB 0.005241705 C T 14 cggttgtttaaccttg SNP_A-1827109 rs6433927 60587 tggcttcctctaattt[C/G] forward Non-AA 0.001479588 C G 15 tactccaaaatggtt SNP_A-1966130 rs10497581 53701 tcttctcccaataggt[A/G] forward Non-AA 0.52388901 A G 16 aagtacgacagagctc SNP_A-2310431 rs13398869 42469 ggaactgtcttaaaag[C/T] reverse Non-BB 0.075041974 C T 17 ctgaaagaagtcagat SNP_A-1893037 rs1967351 26643 tgcactgtaggttaaa[C/T] reverse Non-BB 0.258267198 C T 18 tggctctttgggctaa SNP_A-4275669 rs10207791 23890 aatggggaagcagtca[A/G] reverse Non-AA 0.138169504 A G 19 gaagaaagtgagtccc SNP_A-2065238 rs2696344 13541 aattggcttctcttaa[C/G] forward Non-BB 0.086456719 C G 20 tatatgagatagggtt SNP_A-1966131 rs12053195  6069 actagtactgtcccag[A/G] forward Non-AA 0.399257392 A G 21 aaaatttatacacctt 77898 cagtgtctgttgttcct forward A/B 0.0047 T C 22 [C/T]tctatgaaacacaatgg rs6433923 77934 taattggaaaattta[T/A]t forward A/B 0.0045 T A 23 tttttttcaggtg 77949 ttttttttcaggtg[A/C]tt forward A/B 0.2241 A C 24 ctaagtatgacttgc

The following SNP genotypes were found to most accurately predict a predisposition to QT prolongation: non-AT at rs895901, non-AA at rs1441162, non-CT at rs993650, non-AG at rs993648, AA at rs16867450, non-TT at rs16867452, and CC at rs6433927. These genotypes are included amongst all genotypes associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation. Therefore, individuals possessing one or more of these genotypes may be considered predisposed to QT prolongation following the administration of a compound capable of prolonging the QT interval.

Since the QT interval changes with changes in heart rate, the QT interval is often measured as a corrected QT (QTc) interval. Any number of formulas may be employed to calculate the QTc, including, for example, the Fridericia formula (QTcF), the Bazett formula (QTcB), and the Rautaharju formula (QTp), among others. In the studies described herein, QT was calculated using the Fridericia formula. However, the present invention includes the use of any such formula or method for calculating a QTc or an uncorrected QT.

As noted above, a large number of compounds are known or suspected to be capable of inducing QT prolongation in some individuals, including individuals not suffering from LQTS. One such compound is iloperidone. Iloperidone is disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,364,866, 5,658,911, and 6,140,345, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. Metabolites of iloperidone may also be capable of prolonging a QT interval. Metabolites of Iloperidone, e.g., 1-[4-[3-[4-(6-Fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]propoxy]-3-methoxyphenyl]ethanol, are described in International Patent Application Publication No. WO03020707, which is also incorporated herein by reference.

Other iloperidone metabolites include: 1-[4-[3-[4-(6-Fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]propoxy]-3-hydroxyphenyl]ethanone; 1-[4-[3-[4-(6-Fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]propoxy]-3-methoxyphenyl]-2-hydroxyethanone; 4-[3-[4-(6-Fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]propoxy]-3-hydroxy-α-methylbenzene methanol; 4-[3-[4-(6-Fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]propoxyl-2-hydroxy-5-methoxy-α-methylbenzenemethanol; 1-[4-[3-[4-(6-Fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]propoxy]-2-hydroxy-5-methoxyphenyl]ethanone; and 1-[4-[3-[4-(6-Fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]propoxy]-2,5-dihydroxyphenyl]ethanone. See U.S. Pat. No. 5,364,866 and International Patent Application Publication Nos. WO9309276 and WO9511680, which are incorporated herein by reference.

Using the genotypes at the SNP loci above, it is possible, with a high degree of certainty, to predict an individual's predisposition to QT prolongation. Table 2 below shows the results of a study of 174 individuals, each of whom was genotyped at the rs993648 locus and their QT interval measured following the oral administration of 24 mg/day B.I.D. of iloperidone for a period of two weeks.

TABLE 2 QT Prolongation and Presence or Absence of a Genotype for SNP_A-4232718, rs993648 Associated with a Predisposition to QT Prolongation Change negative positive Threshold Low QT High QT Odds predictive predictive (msec) −test +test −test +test Ratio p value sensitivity specificity value value QT > 5 42 22 38 72 3.62 0.0001 0.65 0.66 0.53 0.77 QT > 15 62 41 18 53 4.45 <0.0001 0.75 0.60 0.78 0.56 QT > 30 76 71 4 23 6.16 0.0013 0.85 0.52 0.95 0.24

As can be seen in Table 2, an individual's CERKL sequence at the SNP_A-4232718, rs993648 locus is highly predictive of whether the individual will experience QT prolongation following the administration of iloperidone. For example, using the lowest threshold of a change in QTc interval (between baseline and the end of the second week) greater than 5 milliseconds (normal QTc intervals are between 0.30 and 0.44 seconds for males and between 0.30 and 0.45 for females), 72 of those individuals with a SNP genotype (test is considered positive if genotype for SNP_A-4232718, rs993648 is non-AB) associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation experienced QT prolongation while only 22 such individuals did not. Similarly, nearly twice as many individuals (72) experiencing QT prolongation possessed a SNP genotype associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation as did not (38). This resulted in a sensitivity (probability that the individual will have a SNP genotype associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation, given that he/she experienced QT prolongation) of 0.65 and a specificity (probability that the individual will not have a SNP genotype associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation, given that he/she did not experience QT prolongation) of 0.66, a negative predictive value (probability that the individual will not experience QT prolongation, given that he/she does not have a SNP genotype associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation) of 0.53, and a positive predictive value (probability that the individual will experience QT prolongation, given that he/she has a SNP genotype associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation) of 0.77.

The use of higher thresholds (i.e., QTs greater than 15 and 30 milliseconds) yielded markedly increased negative predictive values (0.78 and 0.95, respectively). The associated decrease in positive predictive values, from 0.77 for QTs greater than 5 milliseconds to 0.24 for QTs greater than 30 milliseconds) suggests that additional factors affect more severe QT prolongation.

As the data in Table 2 show, an individual's CERKL sequence at the SNP loci above may be used to predict whether an individual is predisposed to QT prolongation due to the administration of a compound capable of prolonging the QT interval. That is, individuals having one or more SNP genotype associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation may reliably be predicted to experience a prolonged QT interval (i.e., a QT interval prolonged by at least 5 milliseconds) following the administration of a compound capable of prolonging the QT interval. Similarly, individuals not having any of the above SNP genotypes associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation may reliably be predicted to not experience severe QT prolongation (i.e., a QT interval prolonged greater than 15 milliseconds) following the administration of a compound capable of prolonging the QT interval.

The ability to make such predictions may be used in deciding whether to treat an individual with a particular compound and/or in determining the dosage appropriate for the individual. For example, an individual predicted to experience QT prolongation may be treated with an alternative compound not known or suspected to cause QT prolongation or may be administered a lower dose of a compound capable of causing QT prolongation than would be administered to an individual not predicted to experience QT prolongation.

The present invention also includes the administration of another compound useful in treating LQTS, in addition to one or more of the compounds above. Compounds useful in treating LQTS and/or preventing cardiac events resulting from LQTS, include, for example, beta blockers, such as propranolol, nadolol, atenolol, metoprolol.

The present invention also includes the prediction of an individual's predisposition for QT prolongation based on one or more of the SNP loci above in combination with the individual's genotype or gene sequence at one or more additional genes or loci. For example, International Patent Application Publication No. WO2006039663, incorporated herein by reference, describes a method of treating an individual with a compound capable of inducing QT prolongation based on the individual's CYP2D6 genotype. Other genotypes and/or gene sequences may similarly be used in combination with the SNP loci above, including those associated with LQTS.

Multiple techniques for determining the sequence of the CERKL gene or of one or more portions thereof (including, e.g., the following SNPs: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, rs6433927) are well known in the art. These include amplifying and sequencing genomic or complementary DNA or mRNA as well as, e.g., hybridization techniques.

After determining the genotype across the entire CERKL gene or a portion of it, such as the SNPs identified above, the patient's genotype can be compared to genotypes described above as being associated with prolonged QT prolongation. Thus, e.g., if a given individual's genotype at rs993648 is other than A in one gene and G in the second copy of that gene, then, with reference to Table 1, one can see that that person is predisposed to prolonged QT interval.

In one practice of the invention, a person or other entity performing a genotyping test for an individual's CERKL gene will determine the genotype only for one or more of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) loci selected from the group consisting of: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, and rs6433927. In a related practice of the invention, a person or other entity that performs such genotype assay will determine the person's genotype at one or more of said loci and will report the person's genotype only at such one or more of said loci.

It should also be understood that the present invention includes the characterization of an expression product of the CERKL gene rather than, or in addition to, the determination of one or more SNP genotypes within the CERKL gene. For example, by determining a sequence of an mRNA strand transcribed from the CERKL gene, it is possible to determine the sequence of the CERKL gene itself and, as described above, determine whether the CERKL gene sequence is associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation.

Similarly, by properly characterizing a peptide or protein, including the CERKL enzyme, translated from the mRNA strand above, it is possible to determine the sequence of the CERKL gene itself and, as described above, determine whether the CERKL gene sequence is associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation.

Phenotypic assays that indirectly determine a person's CERKL genotype are described, e.g., with respect to CYP2D6 alleles, by Leyland-Jones, US20030170176.

This invention encompasses kits and reagents for determining an individual's CERKL genotype, including, e.g., probes and primers. Kits of the invention include reagents and, optionally, other materials, useful in determining an individual's genotype for the CERKL gene. Such kit may include, e.g., a detection means, a collection device, containers, and instructions, and may be used in determining a patient's CERKL genotype, such as for determining an appropriate treatment strategy for a person having a disorder for which iloperidone is indicated. Such treatment strategy might comprise, e.g., choosing a different drug, i.e., one not associated with QT prolongation, adjusting the dose of iloperidone, or monitoring the patient during treatment for prolonged QT interval.

Detection means may detect a CYP2D6 polymorphism directly or indirectly via mRNA or protein. Such detection means may also indirectly determine genotype at a relevant loci by taking advantage of linkage disequilibrium with another polymorphism. Detection means include, e.g., polynucleotides used in amplification, sequencing and SNP detection techniques, Invader(R) assays (Third Wave Technologies Inc.), Taqman(R) assays (Applied Biosystems, Inc.) gene chip assays (such as those available from Affymetrix, Inc.), pyrosequencing, fluorescence resonance energy trasnfer (FRET)-based cleavage assays, fluorescent polarization, denaturing HPLC, mass spectometry, and polynucleotides having fluorescent or radiological tags used in amplification and sequencing.

Collection devices suitable for use in the invention include devices known in the art for collecting and/or storing a biological sample of an individual from which nucleic acids and/or polypeptides can be isolated. Such biological samples include, for example, whole blood, semen, saliva, tears, urine, fecal material, buccal smears, skin, hair, and biopsy samples. Accordingly, suitable collection devices include, for example, specimens cups, swabs, glass slides, test tubes, lancets, and Vacutainer(R) tubes and kits.

An illustrative embodiment of a kit of the invention is a kit that comprises a set of oligonucleotides, wherein each member of the set selectively, hybridizes to regions of selected variants of the CERKL gene that comprise one or more SNPs selected from the group consisting of: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, and rs6433927. By “selectively hybridizes,” one of skill in the art would understand that the oligonucleotide will hybridize preferentially for a given SNP genotype such that the nucleotide in that SNP locus can be determined. Such oligonucleotides can be provided, e.g., in the form of an array of nucleic acid molecules attached to a support, wherein the array has oligonucleotides that will hybridize to selected allelic variants, or SNPs, of CERKL, such as, e.g., rs993648.

Such nucleic acids of the invention can be used, for e.g., in prognostic methods, such as are described herein. Specifically, for example, the nucleic acids of the invention can be used as probes or primers to determine whether a subject has a genotype for the CERKL gene that is associated with predisposition to QT prolongation.

Assays for determining genotype for the CERKL gene can be done in many clinical laboratories, such as those found in a typical hospital, clinic and private reference laboratories. In accordance with an aspect of this invention, kits are designed that contain some or all the reagents, primers and solutions for the genotyping assay.

An illustrative assay for determining an individuals CERKL genotype comprises: a) obtaining a genomic DNA sample of said subject; b) using the DNA sample of step a), amplifying a fragment comprising a polymorphic site of the CYP2D6 genes; c) hybridizing the amplified fragment of step b) with allele-specific oligonucleotides probes corresponding to wild type and variant alleles to determine the CYP2D6 genotype of the subject. Such methods include methods that are well known, such as are disclosed by Milos et al., US20030170176, Huang, US20040091909, Neville, et al., US20040096874, WO03544266, and WO03038123.

In addition, the present invention includes determining whether a compound is capable of prolonging a QT interval in an individual. This may be done, for example, by measuring a change in QT interval in a test organism (e.g., human, animal model, cell line) known to possess a CERKL genotype associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation following the administration of a quantity of compound under study. Preferably, the compound is also administered to a test organism known to possess a CERKL genotype not associated with a predisposition to QT prolongation.

The foregoing description of various aspects of the invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed, and obviously, many modifications and variations are possible. Such modifications and variations that may be apparent to a person skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the invention as defined by the accompanying claims. 

1. A method of administering to an individual a compound capable of prolonging the individual's QT interval, the method comprising: determining at least a portion of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene sequence; and in the case that a portion of the individual's CERKL gene sequence is associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation, administering to the individual a quantity of the compound less than would be administered to an individual having a CERKL gene sequence not associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation, or electing instead to treat the individual with a different compound not known to be associated with QT prolongation.
 2. The method of claim 1, wherein determining includes determining the individual's genotype at least one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) locus selected from the group consisting of: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, and rs6433927.
 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the genotype associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation is selected from the group consisting of: non-AT at rs895901, non-AA at rs1441162, non-CT at rs993650, non-AG at rs993648, AA at rs16867450, non-TT at rs16867452, and CC at rs6433927.
 4. The method of claim 1, 2, or 3, further comprising: determining the individual's CYP2D6 genotype.
 5. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of: amiodarone, arsenic trioxide, bepridil, chloroquine, chlorpromazine, cisapride, clarithromycin, disopyramide, dofetilide, domperidone, droperidol, erythromycin, halofantrine, haloperidol, ibutilide, iloperidone, levomethadyl, mesoridazine, methadone, pentamidine, pimozide, procainamide, quinidine, sotalol, sparfloxacin, thioridazine; alfuzosin, amantadine, azithromycin, chloral hydrate, clozapine, dolasetron, felbamate, flecamide, foscarnet, fosphenyloin, gatifloxacin, gemifloxacin, granisetron, indapamide, isradipine, levofloxacin, lithium, moexipril, moxifloxacin, nicardipine, octreotide, ofloxacin, ondansetron, quetiapine, ranolazine, risperidone, roxithromycin, tacrolimus, tamoxifen, telithromycin, tizanidine, vardenafil, venlafaxine, voriconazole, ziprasidone; albuterol, amitriptyline, amoxapine, amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, atomoxetine, chloroquine, ciprofloxacin, citalopram, clomipramine, cocaine, desipramine, dexmethylphenidate, dobutamine, dopamine, doxepin, ephedrine, epinephrine, fenfluramine, fluconazole, fluoxetine, galantamine, imipramine, isoproterenol, itraconazole, ketoconazole, levalbuterol, metaproterenol, methylphenidate, mexiletine, midodrine, norepinephrine, nortriptyline, paroxetine, phentermine, phenylephrine, phenylpropanolamine, protriptyline, pseudoephedrine, ritodrine, salmeterol, sertraline, sibutramine, solifenacin, terbutaline, tolterodine, trimethoprim-sulfa, trimipramine, and metabolites, pharmaceutically-acceptable salts, and combinations thereof.
 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the compound has the formula:

wherein: R is, independently, hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, hydroxyl, carboxyl, lower hydroxyketone, lower alkanol, hydroxyl acetic acid, pyruvic acid, ethanediol, chlorine, fluorine, bromine, iodine, amino, lower mono or dialkylamino, nitro, lower alkyl thio, trifluoromethoxy, cyano, acylamino, trifluoromethyl, trifluoroacetyl, aminocarbonyl, monoaklylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, formyl,

alkyl is lower alkyl, branched or straight and saturated or unsaturated; acyl is lower alkyl or lower alkyloxy bonded through a carbonyl; aryl is phenyl or phenyl substituted with at least one group, R₅, wherein each R₅ is, independently, hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, hydroxy, chlorine, fluorine, bromine, iodine, lower monoalkylamino, lower dialkylamino, nitro, cyano, trifluoromethyl, or trifluoromethoxy; heteroaryl is a five- or six-membered aryl ring having at least one heteroatom, Q₃, wherein each Q₃ is, independently, —O—, —S—, —N(H)—, or —C(H)═N— W is CH₂ or CHR₈ or N—R₉; R₁ is —H, lower alkyl, —OH, halo, lower alkoxy, trifluormethyl, nitro, or amino; R₂ is C₂-C₅ alkylene, alkenylene (cis or trans), or alkynylene, optionally substituted by at least one C₁-C₆ linear alkyl group, phenyl group or

where Z₁ is lower alkyl, —OH, lower alkoxy, —CF₃, —NO₂, —NH₂, or halogen; R₃ is lower alkyl or hydrogen; R₇ is hydrogen, lower alkyl, or acyl; R₈ is lower alkyl; R₉ is hydroxy, lower alkoxy, or —NHR₁₀; R₁₀ is hydrogen, lower alkyl, C₁-C₃ acyl, aryl,

X₁, X₂, and X₃ are, independently, —O—, —S—, ═N—, or —N(R₃)—, or X₁ and X₂ are not covalently bound to each other and are, independently, —OH, ═O, —R₃, or ═NR₃; lower is 1-4 carbon atoms; m is 1, 2, or 3; and n is 1 or
 2. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein: R is —C(O)CH₂OH, —CH(OH)C(O)CH₂OH, —C(O)OH, CH(OH)CH₃, or C(O)CH₃; R₁ is halo; X₁ and X₂ are different and are ═O, —OH, ═N—, or —O—; R₂ is C₂-C₄ alkylene or alkenylene; R₃ is hydrogen, methyl, or ethyl; X₃ is —O—; and R is substituted as shown in Formula 1A


8. The method of claim 7, wherein the compound of Formula 1 is 1-[4-3-[4-(6-fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]propoxy]-3-methoxyphenyl]ethanone, as shown in Formula 1 B:


9. The method of claim 7, wherein the compound of Formula 1 is 1-[4-[3-[4-(6-Fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]propoxy]-3-methoxyphenyl]ethanol, as shown in Formula 1C:


10. A method of determining whether an individual is predisposed to prolongation of the QT interval, the method comprising: determining at least a portion of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene sequence.
 11. The method of claim 10, further comprising: in the case that a portion of the individual's CERKL gene sequence is associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation, administering to the individual a compound not known or suspected to cause QT prolongation.
 12. The method of claim 10, wherein determining includes determining the individual's genotype at least one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) locus selected from the group consisting of: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, and rs6433927.
 13. The method of claim 12, wherein the genotype associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation is selected from the group consisting of: non-AT at rs895901, non-AA at rs1441162, non-CT at rs993650, non-AG at rs993648, AA at rs16867450, non-TT at rs16867452, and CC at rs6433927.
 14. The method of claim 10, further comprising: determining the individual's CYP2D6 genotype.
 15. A method of administering a compound capable of prolonging a QT interval to an individual suffering from long QT syndrome (LQTS), the method comprising: determining at least a portion of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene sequence; and administering to the individual a quantity of the compound based on the individual's CERKL gene sequence.
 16. The method of claim 15, wherein determining includes determining the individual's genotype at least one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) locus selected from the group consisting of: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, and rs6433927.
 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the genotype associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation is selected from the group consisting of: non-AT at rs895901, non-AA at rs1441162, non-CT at rs993650, non-AG at rs993648, AA at rs16867450, non-TT at rs16867452, and CC at rs6433927.
 18. The method of claim 15, further comprising: determining the individual's CYP2D6 genotype.
 19. The method of claim 15, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of: amiodarone, arsenic trioxide, bepridil, chloroquine, chlorpromazine, cisapride, clarithromycin, disopyramide, dofetilide, domperidone, droperidol, erythromycin, halofantrine, haloperidol, ibutilide, iloperidone, levomethadyl, mesoridazine, methadone, pentamidine, pimozide, procainamide, quinidine, sotalol, sparfloxacin, thioridazine; alfuzosin, amantadine, azithromycin, chloral hydrate, clozapine, dolasetron, felbamate, flecamide, foscarnet, fosphenyloin, gatifloxacin, gemifloxacin, granisetron, indapamide, isradipine, levofloxacin, lithium, moexipril, moxifloxacin, nicardipine, octreotide, ofloxacin, ondansetron, quetiapine, ranolazine, risperidone, roxithromycin, tacrolimus, tamoxifen, telithromycin, tizanidine, vardenafil, venlafaxine, voriconazole, ziprasidone; albuterol, amitriptyline, amoxapine, amphetamine, dextroamphetamine, atomoxetine, chloroquine, ciprofloxacin, citalopram, clomipramine, cocaine, desipramine, dexmethylphenidate, dobutamine, dopamine, doxepin, ephedrine, epinephrine, fenfluramine, fluconazole, fluoxetine, galantamine, imipramine, isoproterenol, itraconazole, ketoconazole, levalbuterol, metaproterenol, methylphenidate, mexiletine, midodrine, norepinephrine, nortriptyline, paroxetine, phentermine, phenylephrine, phenylpropanolamine, protriptyline, pseudoephedrine, ritodrine, salmeterol, sertraline, sibutramine, solifenacin, terbutaline, tolterodine, trimethoprim-sulfa, trimipramine, and metabolites, pharmaceutically-acceptable salts, and combinations thereof.
 20. The method of claim 15, wherein the compound has the formula:

wherein: R is, independently, hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, hydroxyl, carboxyl, lower hydroxyketone, lower alkanol, hydroxyl acetic acid, pyruvic acid, ethanediol, chlorine, fluorine, bromine, iodine, amino, lower mono or dialkylamino, nitro, lower alkyl thio, trifluoromethoxy, cyano, acylamino, trifluoromethyl, trifluoroacetyl, aminocarbonyl, monoaklylaminocarbonyl, dialkylaminocarbonyl, formyl,

alkyl is lower alkyl, branched or straight and saturated or unsaturated; acyl is lower alkyl or lower alkyloxy bonded through a carbonyl; aryl is phenyl or phenyl substituted with at least one group, R₅, wherein each R₅ is, independently, hydrogen, lower alkyl, lower alkoxy, hydroxy, chlorine, fluorine, bromine, iodine, lower monoalkylamino, lower dialkylamino, nitro, cyano, trifluoromethyl, or trifluoromethoxy; heteroaryl is a five- or six-membered aryl ring having at least one heteroatom, Q₃, wherein each Q₃ is, independently, —O—, —S—, —N(H)—, or —C(H)═N— W is CH₂ or CHR₈ or N—R₉; R₁ is —H, lower alkyl, —OH, halo, lower alkoxy, trifluormethyl, nitro, or amino; R₂ is C₂-C₅ alkylene, alkenylene (cis or trans), or alkynylene, optionally substituted by at least one C₁-C₆ linear alkyl group, phenyl group or

where Z₁ is lower alkyl, —OH, lower alkoxy, —CF₃, —NO₂, —NH₂, or halogen; R₃ is lower alkyl or hydrogen; R₇ is hydrogen, lower alkyl, or acyl; R₈ is lower alkyl; R₉ is hydroxy, lower alkoxy, or —NHR₁₀; R₁₀ is hydrogen, lower alkyl, C₁-C₃ acyl, aryl,

X₁, X₂, and X₃ are, independently, —O—, —S—, ═N—, or —N(R₃)—, or X₁ and X₂ are not covalently bound to each other and are, independently, —OH, ═O, —R₃, or ═NR₃; lower is 1-4 carbon atoms; m is 1, 2, or 3; and n is 1 or
 2. 21. The method of claim 20, wherein: R is —C(O)CH₂OH, —CH(OH)C(O)CH₂OH, —C(O)OH, CH(OH)CH₃, or C(O)CH₃; R₁ is halo; X₁ and X₂ are different and are ═O, —OH, ═N—, or —O—; R₂ is C₂-C₄ alkylene or alkenylene; R₃ is hydrogen, methyl, or ethyl; X₃ is —O—; and R is substituted as shown in Formula 1A


22. The method of claim 21, wherein the compound of Formula 1 is 1-[4-3-[4-(6-fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]propoxy]-3-methoxyphenyl]ethanone, as shown in Formula 1 B:


23. The method of claim 21, wherein the compound of Formula 1 is 1-[4-[3-[4-(6-Fluoro-1,2-benzisoxazol-3-yl)-1-piperidinyl]propoxy]-3-methoxyphenyl]ethanol, as shown in Formula 1C:


24. A method of administering to an individual a compound capable of prolonging the individual's QT interval, the method comprising: characterizing an expression product of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene; and in the case that the characterized expression product is associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation, administering to the individual a quantity of the compound less than would be administered to an individual having an expression product not associated with an increased risk of QT prolongation.
 25. The method of claim 24, wherein the expression product includes at least one expression product selected from the group consisting of: mRNA, a peptide, and a protein.
 26. A method of determining whether an individual is predisposed to prolongation of the QT interval, the method comprising: characterizing an expression product of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene.
 27. The method of claim 26, wherein the expression product includes at least one expression product selected from the group consisting of: mRNA, a peptide, and a protein.
 28. A method of administering a compound capable of prolonging a QT interval to an individual suffering from long QT syndrome (LQTS), the method comprising: characterizing an expression product of an individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene; and administering to the individual a quantity of the compound based on the characterized expression product.
 29. The method of claim 28, wherein the expression product includes at least one expression product selected from the group consisting of: mRNA, a peptide, and a protein.
 30. A method of determining whether a compound is capable of prolonging a QT interval in an individual, the method comprising: measuring an expression product of the individual's ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) gene; administering to the individual a quantity of the compound; remeasuring the expression product of the individual's CERKL gene; and determining whether the compound is capable of prolonging the individual's QT interval based on a difference in the measurements of the expression product of the individual's CERKL gene.
 31. The method of claim 30, wherein the expression product includes at least one expression product selected from the group consisting of: mRNA, a peptide, and a protein.
 32. A method of determining whether a compound is capable of prolonging a QT interval in an individual, the method comprising: measuring a QT interval of each of a plurality of test organisms, the plurality including a first test organism having a ceramide kinase-like (CERKL) genotype associated with a predisposition for prolongation of QT interval and a second organism having a CERKL genotype not associated with a predisposition for prolongation of QT interval; administering a quantity of the compound to each of the plurality of test organisms; remeasuring a QT interval of at least the first test organism; and determining that the compound is capable of prolonging a QT interval in an individual in the case that the remeasured QT interval is greater than the measured QT interval.
 33. The method of claim 32, wherein each of the plurality of test organisms is selected from the group consisting of: humans, animals, and cell lines.
 34. A method for determining an individual's genotype for the CERKL gene that comprises determining the individual's genotype at least one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) locus selected from the group consisting of: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, and rs6433927.
 35. The method of claim 34 that comprises determining the individual's genotype at rs993648.
 36. A method for reporting a person's genotype for the CERKL gene that comprises determining and reporting the individual's genotype at least one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) locus selected from the group consisting of: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, and rs6433927.
 37. The method of claim 36 that comprises determining and reporting the individual's genotype at rs993648.
 38. A kit for determining an individual's genotype for the CERKL gene that comprises one or more reagents for determining the individual's genotype at least one single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) locus selected from the group consisting of: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, and rs6433927.
 39. The kit of claim 38 that comprises one or more reagents for determining the individual's genotype at rs993648.
 40. The kit of claim 38 that comprises a set of oligonucleotides that selectively hybridize to regions of selected variants of the CERKL gene that comprise one or more SNPs selected from the group consisting of: rs895901, rs1441162, rs993650, rs993648, rs16867450, rs16867452, and rs6433927. 